If you or a loved one has recently been diagnosed with cancer, then the discussion has mostly been regarding recommended cancer treatments, side effects, and efficacy. There are a number of cancer treatment options available, including alternative or natural cancer treatments, invasive and non-invasive procedures, chemotherapy, radiation, or a combination. Not every cancer treatment works the same for every patient. It depends a great deal on what type of cancer has been diagnosed, how much it has progressed, and what type of cancer treatments are effective at that particular stage.

Some people opt not to proceed with any type of cancer treatment, which is also their choice. If the going through all the pain and suffering just isn’t worth it to them for whatever reason, they are allowed to make this decision. Some aggressive cancers have advanced so quickly that whatever type of therapy chosen may just not be able to stop the cancer from spreading, or it has progressed so far that treatment is not even an option.

When most people think of cancer treatment, they think of chemotherapy. Chemotherapy is used to treat the majority of cancers; there are over 100 different drugs that are used alone or in combination with others, that work systemically throughout the body. There is always a great chance that cancer cells have or will migrate to other parts of the body, which is why chemotherapy is used as the first line approach.

Chemotherapy medication can be given to the patient orally, be injected into a muscle or be supplied intravenously. Depending on the cancer and the treatment course it may be given over a few days, weeks or even months. Of course there are many side effects associated with chemotherapy, although most of these can be managed with other medications to make the patient more comfortable over their course of treatment.

Other treatment options are available, such as radiation therapy and surgery, but usually chemotherapy is the first choice. There are many people out there offering natural remedies which are unproven, so anyone who wants to tries these remedies should discuss with their doctor first to make sure they aren’t just being taken for a ride.

It is important during the course of your cancer treatment to advise your doctor of any and all medications you may be taking, whether they are herbal or medical. There are many medications that you may be taking at one time and you will want to make sure that none of them interfere with each other, and that all of them are working together to give you the best chance of beating this disease.

Colon cancer is the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths in North America and the rest of the Western world. Breast cancer wins as number one, and lung cancer can easily be considered as the third. It does imply that you ought to be careful about watching out for the condition.

With 655,000 deaths worldwide per year, colon cancer ranks as the third amongst cancers that kill. In the UK it actually rises to number two with about 16,000 in those parts. So, it’s a type of cancer to pay a lot of attention to. And yes, early detection helps a great deal in determining whether one can survive the condition or not.

Most people don’t look forward to treating colorectal cancer, least of all, you, the sufferer. First you need a colonoscopy to learn the extent of the disease. This done, you need a surgery to begin the treatment. A lot of the time, it is finished off by chemotherapy.

To diagnose colorectal cancer, there usually needs to be a colonoscopy. Short of this, you might never be able to tell for certain how badly you are infected or infect if you really are. So, it’s worth repeating - early detection can save your life from colon cancer.

The greater majority of colorectal cancer cases are often curable. The actual figure of possible cures lies somewhere north of eighty percent. This implies that a diagnosis is not necessarily the end of your life. You can be cured.

A colorectal cancer is a cancer of your large intestine. This means that the cancer has infected all or parts of you rectum, your colon, and the lower part of your intestinal tract. The best way to have it diagnosed is to get a colonoscopy.

In Canada, something close to nine thousand people die from colorectal cancer every year. This pales however, compared to the fifty five thousand that kick the bucket in the United States alone each year, following the same disease.

A lot of people don’t seem to know much about colon cancer, at least not as many people are there are that know about and dread breast cancer. However, the numbers of newly recorded cases of the condition continue to rise each year. So also does the number of deaths.

The constant research work on breast cancer has shown a strong link between high fatty foods and breast cancer. Countries with staple food based diets like Japan of the 1950s have recorded minimal occurrence of breast cancer. With this, I’m sure you will want to watch out for the fat content of your food.

Although a lot of symptoms have been given for breast cancer, it is noted that breast cancer can come with a different sign and symptoms in some people. So the best way of detecting breast cancer is by knowing your breast and being aware of the slightest changes that occur, be it in size, shape or feel.

It is often possible for breast cancer tumors to be present in regions that are within the nipple tract. This will make the bloody discharging from the nipples less likely. So if you feel lumps on your breast without discharges from your nipples it can still be breast cancer.

There are high possibilities for breast cancer to spread around to other part of the body before it is detected. This makes the breast cancer difficult to treat and increases the chances of reoccurrence. This is why regular self examination and occasional clinical examination is suggested, to reveal breast cancer timely while the damage is minimal.

Researchers believe emotional stress can lead to breast cancer growth in some people. These propounded theory believes that people who develop any form of cancer from emotional stress are however likely to develop the same cancer without the stress. This means that stress increases the chances of a cancer susceptible individual, getting cancer.

Breast cancer survival rate depends on the degree of the cancer’s metastasis. If the breast cancer is not timely diagnosed it can cause a spread to other parts of the body and organs. Constantly check your breast for cancer lumps and avoid the spreading of the tumor if it is there.

Statistic shows that breast cancer reoccurrence is about 10% in treated patient. This deadly disease should not be allowed to reoccur. After a successful treatment of breast cancer, you should maintain a regular monthly appointment with your doctor to prevent the disease reoccurring.

A step to the quick detection of breast cancer is regular examination of the breast by oneself for lumps and irregular shape and size. The examination is however not effective in some breast that has been augmented or implanted, as a lump in an augmented breast may not be detectable because of the alteration on the breast. Before you go for breast reform ensure that it is not the type that will not make lump detection impossible.

Breast cancer has recently become a major issue in today’s society. But what exactly is breast cancer? It can best be described as a collection of cells that are growing and dividing in various parts of the breast and breast tissue. It usually starts in either the mammary ducts or the lobules. Its growth rate is very slow and it can take up to 10 years before a lump is actually detectable by a self examination. However just because you have a lump does not necessarily mean you have invasive cancer. In addition to invasive cancer, a lump could also be a type of carcinoma in situ, it is very important to understand the difference between these lump causing diseases.

Carcinoma in situ is an abnormal cell growth/development inside either the milk ducts or the lobules without spreading to surrounding tissue, hence the term “in situ” which means “in place”. As long as the abnormal cells remain in the milk ducts or lobules the condition is classified as carcinoma in situ. Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS) and lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS) are the two primary sub-categories that we will examine.

DCIS is a disease where abnormal cells begin growing in the hollow areas of the mammary ducts. These abnormal cells carry a strong resemblance to those of invasive cancer - DCIS can actually become invasive cancer if left untreated. It is because of this reason that it is very important to frequently perform self examinations.

When the abnormal cell growth occurs in the open spaces of the lobules it is called lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS). This is different from DCIS because it is in a different area and the cells do not have the potential to grow into invasive cancer. However, it has been proven that women who have LCIS are at higher risk of having invasive cancer.

If these abnormal cells in the mammary ducts or the lobules spread outside of that area, the disease is reclassified as invasive cancer. Invasive cancer has the ability to spread outside the origin area and affect the surrounding breast tissue, lungs, liver, and bones. Early detection is imperative to ensure a more successful treatment probability. Success rates dramatically decline as cases progress without treatment.

When a woman finds a lump it is very important to have it checked out; the odds of that lump being invasive cancer is about 20%. She will either need a mammogram or a biopsy. The mammogram will be able to provide more information about the suspicious area. A biopsy will give you and the physician definitive results as to what is causing the lump and whether it is dangerous.

INTRODUCTION: Cancer of the pancreas is a disease in which cancerous cells form in the tissues of the pancreas a large organ that lies horizontally behind the lower area of your stomach. The disease is difficult to locate and diagnose for the following reasons: There aren’t any visible signs or symptoms in its early stages. It usually metastasizes (spreads) rapidly and is rarely detected in its early stages, which is a major reason why it’s a leading cause of deaths due to cancer. Pancreatic cancer often has a poor prognosis, even when diagnosed early and sometimes result in diabetes.

TYPES: Several different forms of cancer can develop in the pancreas. The pancreas has 2 different types of glands: exocrine and endocrine. The exocrine cells and endocrine cells of the pancreas form completely different types of malignancies. These are far and away the most common forms of cancer of the pancreas.

Less common kinds of ductal cancers of the exocrine pancreas include adenosquamous carcinomas, squamous cell carcinomas, and giant cell carcinomas. These kinds are distinguished from one another based on how they appear under the microscope. But the type of exocrine pancreatic cancer isn’t as important as the stage (extent) of the cancer when it comes to treating the malignancy.

SYMPTOMS: Early diagnosis is difficult because the symptoms are usually non-specific and varied. Common symptoms include pain in the upper abdomen that typically radiates to the back and is relieved by leaning forward (seen in carcinoma of the body or tail of the pancreas), loss of appetite, significant weight loss and painless jaundice related to bile duct obstruction (carcinoma of the head of the pancreas).

The disease is usually located during the course of the evaluation of aforementioned symptoms. Patients diagnosed with it often have a poor prognosis partly because the cancer usually shows no symptoms early on, leading to locally advanced or metastatic disease by the time it has been diagnosed. Signs and symptoms may not appear until the cancer is quite advanced and removal by surgery is no longer possible.

Persons with the condition typically report the gradual onset of nonspecific symptoms such as lack of appetite, malaise, nausea, fatigue, and midepigastric or back pain. These initial signs can easily be caused by other processes unless a physician has a high index of suspicion for the possibility of underlying pancreatic carcinoma. Delayed diagnosis is a common problem in people with pancreatic cancer, with fewer than a third of patients being diagnosed within two months of the onset of their symptoms. All of these symptoms can have numerous other causes.

RISK: Age is the most significant risk factor for pancreatic carcinoma. Risk factors include smoking, certain familial cancer syndromes, and familial chronic pancreatitis. Smoking is the most common environmental risk factor for pancreatic carcinoma. Cigarette smoking nearly doubles one’s risk, and the risk persists for at least a decade after quitting.

Several studies including one published on 1 June 2007, indicate that B vitamins such as B12, B6, and folate, can reduce the risk of pancreatic cancer when consumed in food, but NOT when ingested in vitamin tablet form. In September 2006, a long-term study concluded that taking Vitamin D can substantially cut the risk of pancreatic carcinoma (as well as other cancers) by up to 50%.

Obesity has been identified as a potential risk factor for cancer of the pancreas and may add to the higher incidence of this disease among blacks. Alcohol consumption does not seem to be an independent risk factor unless it is associated with chronic pancreatitis. Also, in spite of early reports to the contrary, drinking coffee does not appear to be an independent risk factor for pancreatic carcinoma.

TREATMENT: The first goal of pancreatic cancer treatment is to eliminate the cancer, when possible. Treatment depends on the stage and location of the cancer as well as on your age, overall health and personal preferences.

Surgical resectioning is the only potentially curative treatment for those with Cancer of the pancreas, although many are not candidates for resectioning. When the disease is advanced and treatments aren’t likely to produce any benefits, your physician may suggest ways to ease symptoms and make you as comfortable as possible Or…your doctor may recommend a combination of radiation and chemotherapy treatments when your cancer can’t be surgically treated.

Clinical trials are studies to test new types of treatment, such as new drugs, new approaches to surgery or radiation treatments, and novel methods such as gene therapy. If the treatment being studied shows its self to be safer and more effective than are treatments now being used, it will become the new standard of care.

New treatments now under investigation in clinical trials include: Drugs that stop cancer from producing new blood vessels. Cancer treatment vaccines using various strategies to enhance the immune system to help it recognize cancerous cells as intruders.

CONCLUSION: Pancreatic cancer is a malignancy of the pancreas. It is difficult to find and diagnose early and is typically diagnosed with tests and procedures that produce pictures of the pancreas and the surrounding area. Risk factors include: Age, Male gender, African-American ethnicity, Smoking tobacco, Diets high in red meat, Obesity, Diabetes mellitus.

Also: Chronic pancreatitis has been linked, but is not known to be causal, Helicobacter pylori infection, Occupational exposure to certain pesticides, dyes, and chemicals related to gasoline, Family history, 5-10% of patients have a family history of pancreatic cancer. Alcohol might also be a risk factor. The disease has a five-year survival rate of less than 5 percent, and currently there is no effective chemotherapy or radiation therapy for it.

INTRODUCTION: Approximately 15,280 women die every year in the United States from ovarian cancer. Despite this, the 5-year survival rate for ovarian cancer has improved significantly in the last 30 years. The prognosis of ovarian cancer is closely related to the stage at diagnosis. No approved screening method is available for ovarian cancer.

The Mayo Clinic has one of the largest ovarian cancer practices in the US, treating more than 1,200 people in 2006 who had a primary or secondary diagnosis of ovarian cancer. Mayo Clinic uses a large variety of imaging techniques to detect cancer of the ovaries, including PET scans, CT scans and MRIs.

WOMEN: Ovarian cancer is the 7th most common cancer in women in the US, with over 25,000 women newly diagnosed per annum with this disease. It is the 5th leading cause of cancer deaths in women and often does not result in symptoms until the cancer has metatasized extensively. Only about 20 percent of women are diagnosed early, when the disease may still be curable. Cancer of the ovaries usually happens in women past 50 years of age, but it can also affect younger women. About 90% of women who get the disease are older than 40 years of age, with the largest number being aged 55 years or older.

RISK: All women are at risk for cancer of the ovaries, but older women are more apt to get the disease than younger women. The precise cause of ovarian cancer is not known, but several risk and contributing factors have been identified. Women who have been pregnant have a 50 percent decreased risk for developing cancer of the ovaries compared to those who have not. Oral contraceptive use decreases the risk of developing the disease. These factors support the idea that risk for ovarian cancer is related to ovulation and that conditions that suppress this ovulatory cycle play a protective role.

Genetic factors and Family history plays an important part in the risk of developing ovarian cancer also. A history of breast cancer increases a person’s risk of developing ovarian cancer. The lifetime risk for developing ovarian cancer is 1%. This compares to a 4-5 percent chance when 1 first-degree family member is affected, rising to 7% when 2 relatives are affected.

DISEASE: Early stages of the disease causes minimal, nonspecific, or no symptoms. The disease is rare in patients younger than 40 years, after which the incidence rises. Based on the surgical staging, women are classified as having limited disease (stage I and II) or advanced disease (stage III and IV). Females with limited disease are classified as having low or high risk for recurrence based on the following: Low risk for recurrence includes the following; Grade 1 or 2 disease, No tumor on the outer surface of the ovary, Negative peritoneal cytology, No ascites, Tumor growth confined to the ovaries.

High risk for recurrence includes the following, Grade 3 disease, Preoperative rupture of the capsule, Tumor on the outer surface of the ovary, Positive peritoneal cytology, Ascites Tumor growth outside of the ovary, Clear cell tumors, Surgical stage II for postoperative treatment. chemotherapy is indicated in all women with ovarian cancer except those females with surgical-pathological stage I disease with low-risk characteristics.

SYMPTOMS: may include Heavy a feeling in the pelvic area, Pain in lower abdomen, Bleeding from the vagina, Loss or gain in weight, Abnormal periods, Unexplained Pain in the back that gets worse, Gas, Nausea, Vomiting, or Diminished appetite. Symptoms may be caused by something other than cancer, but the only way to be sure is to see visit doctor, nurse, or other health care professional.

Traditionally, it was believed that cancer of the ovaries does not cause any characteristic symptoms until the tumor has spread widely, and that early symptoms of ovarian cancer were not recognizable. However, in June 2007, the American Cancer Society, along with other medical societies including the Gynecologic Cancer Foundation and the Society of Gynecologic Oncologists, released a consensus statement about possible early symptoms of ovarian cancer. This statement was based on research suggesting that some of the early signs of ovarian cancer can, in fact, be recognized.

TREATMENT: Treatment is usually surgery followed by treatment with chemotherapy drugs. There are also many combinations of these treatment methods and it is often worthwhile to get a second opinion about treatment before entering into a specific program. The greater the knowledge you have, the easier it is to make decisions about your personal treatment plan. Arlene Dunlop is a breast and ovarian cancer survivor whose treatments have kept her well and out enjoying life.

Conclusion: Cancer of the ovaries actually represents a group of different tumors that arise from diverse types of tissue contained within the ovary. Ovarian cancer can invade, shed, or metastasized to other organs. A malignant ovarian tumor can grow and invade organs next to the ovaries, such as the fallopian tubes and uterus. Ovarian cancer often produces signs and symptoms, so it is important for women to pay close attention to their bodies and know what is normal for it.

Ovarian cancer most frequently appears in women who are older than 60 (about 50% of patients are over age 65), although it may occur in younger women who have a family history of the disease. Ovarian cancer is the most common cause of cancer death from gynecologic tumors in the United States. Ovarian cancer is diagnosed in about 23,000 women in the United States each year. Ovarian cancer is a frightening diagnosis, but coming to it with knowledge and information helps a great deal. The sooner ovarian cancer is found and treated, the better your chance for recovery.

INTRODUCTION: Bladder cancer refers to any of several forms of malignant growths of the urinary bladder. It characteristically causes blood in the urine; this may be visible to the naked eye (frank haematuria) or seen only by using a microscope (microscopic hematuria).

It is the 4th most common cancer in men and the 9th most common cancer in women, affecting nearly 61,000 Americans a year and is about 4 times more likely to be detected in men than women. It is considered very common in the United States.

TREATMENT: It depends on how deep the tumor invades into the bladder wall and is usually performed once a week for several weeks and can be repeated several times if the cancer returns. The most common treatment for superficial bladder cancer is BCG, a kind of biologic therapy which elevates the body’s immune system to fight the tumor. Medicines available include mitomycin-C, thiotepa, interferon and a newly available agent, valrubicin.

It has not yet been determined how the effectiveness of this type of treatment compares to that of radical ablative surgery. More than 1/2 of patients who opt for this treatment experience recurrence of the malignancy (the cancer coming back).

TYPES: The most common form begins in cells lining the inside of the bladder and is called urothelial cell or transitional cell carcinoma (UCC or TCC). World-class pathologists at Fox Chase Cancer Center look at tissues under a microscope to diagnose the kind of cancer cells, as follows: Urothelial carcinoma or transitional cell carcinoma–accounting for 90% of bladder cancers as well as Squamous cell carcinoma, Adenocarcinoma and Small cell Related Malignancies.

Surgeons at Fox Chase Cancer Center are very skilled in treating all types. People with cancer of the bladder sometimes have a similar form of cancer in the lining of the kidneys (called the renal pelvis), the ureters or the urethra.

SYMPTOMS: Although the signs are few, they are noticeable. These signs and symptoms are not however specific to bladder cancer, and are also caused by non-cancerous conditions, among which are prostate infections and cystitis. Possible symptoms include pain during urination, frequent urination (Pollakiuria) or feeling the urge to urinate without results.

Many patients with a history, signs and symptoms suspicious for bladder cancer are referred to a urologist or other physician trained in cystoscopy, a procedure in which a flexible tube bearing a camera and various instruments is introduced into the bladder through the urethra.

RISK: Approximately 20 percent of diagnosed cases occur in patients without predisposing risk factors. It has been proposed that hair dyes are a risk factor. Hairdressers are said to be at risk as well because of their frequent exposure to permanent hair dyes. Jobs at risk are metal industry workers, rubber industry workers, workers in the textile industry and people who work in printing. Some studies also indicate that car mechanics have an elevated risk due to their continous exposure to hydrocarbons and petroleum-based chemicals. A family history of the disease is also a risk factor.

Conclusion: Bladder cancer is a disease in which cancerous cells form in the tissues of the bladder. Such cases may be treated with surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, biologic therapy or a combination of methods. Exposure to environmental carcinogens of various types is responsible for the development of most cancers of the bladder.

The gold standard for diagnosing the disease is urine cytology and transurethral (through the urethra) cystoscopy. Cytology is very specific (a positive result is highly indicative of bladder cancer) but suffers from low sensitivity (a negative result does not exclude the diagnosis of cancer). 90% of cases are Transitional cell carcinomas (TCC) that arise from the inner lining of the bladder called the urothelium.

In the U.S., bladder cancer is the 4th most common type of cancer in men and the 9th most common cancer in women. Over 47,000 men and 16,000 women are diagnosed with the disease each year. There are now newer urine bound markers for the diagnosis of bladder cancer.

INTRODUCTION: Testicular cancer is a disease that occurs when cancerous (malignant) cells develop in the tissues of a testicle and is the most common cancer in men aged 20 to 35. It is most common among Caucasians and rare among men of African and Asian descent.

In the USA, between 7,500 and 8,000 diagnoses are made per year. Over his lifetime, a man’s risk of developing the malady is roughly 1 in 250 (four tenths of one percent). Although it is found most often among males aged 15-40 years, it has three peaks: infancy, ages 25-40 years, and age 60.

Because it is curable (stage I can have a success rate of 95%) when detected early, experts recommend regular monthly testicular self examinations after a hot shower or bath, when the scrotum is looser. Blood tests are used by your doctor to identify and measure tumor markers that are specific to testicular cancer.

CAUSE: Currently, there is no recognized method for preventing this disease because there is no known cause for it.

TYPE: Although testicular cancer can be derived from any cell type found in the testicles, more than 95% of testicular cancers are germ cell tumors. The main types of testicular germ cell tumors are seminomas and non-seminomas.

SYMPTOMS: Usually include one or more of the following: A lump in one testes or a hardening of one of the testicles. The testicle should normally feel smooth to the touch. Symptoms of late-stage cancer of the testicles may include: Dull pain in the lower back and abdomen, A feeling of heaviness in the scrotum, A sudden collection of fluid in the scrotum, Pain or discomfort in a testicle or the scrotum, Swelling or tenderness of the breasts, Unexplained fatigue or a general feeling of not being well. However each person may experience symptoms differently. The National Cancer Institute suggests that a man see a physician if any of the above symptoms lasts 2 weeks or longer.

RISKS: Risk factors for having testicular cancer include Klinefelter’s syndrome. This is a disorder in which a man has an extra X chromosome. This type of cancer is more common among white men than men of african descent. Hispanic, Asian, and American Indian males have a risk that is higher than black males but lower than white.

There are a number of factors that increase the odds for developing the disease. A major risk factor is cryptorchidism (undescended testicles). Surgery earlier in life reduces risk of developing the disease among males with undescended testes.

According to an article recently published in the New England Journal of Medicine, surgery before the age of 13 for the treatment of undescended testes lowers the risk of cancer of the testes compared with surgery later on in life.

Other risk factors include inguinal hernia and mumps. Physical activity is associated with reduced risk and sedentary lifestyle is associated with increased risk. Also early onset of male characteristics is associated with an elevated risk.

Firefighters face increased risk of many cancers. According to the results of a study published in the Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, firefighters have an increased risk of developing certain types of cancer. Others with occupational risks include Miners, gas workers, leather workers, food and beverage processing workers, utility workers.

Other genetic syndromes are also associated with higher risk. As mention previously white men are more likely to develop this cancer than are men of other races. Nevertheless many men with testicular cancer do not have the suggested risk factors.

TREATMENT: Treatment options are based on the results of staging. Correct diagnosis is needed to ensure the most effective and least harmful treatment. An error in diagnosis is made at the initial examination in up to 25% of person’s with testicular tumors and may result in delay in treatment or a less than optimal approach (scrotal incision) for exploration.

The three basic types of treatment are surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy. As an adjuvant treatment, use of chemotherapy as an alternative to radiation therapy is increasing, because radiation therapy appears to have more significant long-term side effects, for example, internal scarring, increased risks of secondary malignancies etc.

Chemotherapy is the standard treatment for non-seminoma when the cancer has metastasized to other parts of the body (that is, stage II or III). An alternative, equally effective treatment involves the use of 4 cycles of Etoposide-Cisplatin (EP).

While treatment success depends on the stage, the average survival rate after five years is around 95 percent, and stage I cancers cases (if monitored correctly) have basically a 100% survival rate (which is why prompt action, when testicular cancer is a possibility is extremely important). Understanding treatment options, accessing novel and innovative therapies through clinical trials, as well as understanding the role of supportive care and complementary and alternative medicine are essential.

CONCLUSION: Testicular cancer is a condition that develops in the testicles, a part of the male reproductive system. The exact cause is thus far unknown. Common symptoms include: A swelling and/or lump in one or both of the testes. It is important to understand that these symptoms can occur as a result of conditions not related to the disease.

Possible risk factors include the following: Age - Most testicular cancers happen in males between the ages of 15 and 40. It has one of the greatest cure rates of all cancers, in excess of 90 percent and essentially 100 percent if it has’nt metastasized (spread).

It is diagnosed with the aid of procedures that examine the testicles and the blood. Specific treatment will be determined by your M.D. based on: your age, overall health, and medical history, extent of the disease, your ability to tolerate specific medications, procedures or therapies as well as personal preferences.

INTRODUCTION: Cervical cancer is malignant cancer of the cervix uteri or cervical area. it is a carcinoma, typically composed of squamous cells, and is similar in some respects to squamous cell cancers of the head, neck and anus. Cervical cancers and cervical pre-cancers are classified by how they look under a microscope.

In developed countries, the broad use of cervical screening programs has reduced the incidence of invasive cancer of the cervix by 50 percent or more. Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is a necessary factor in the development of practically all cases of cervical cancer.

RISK: The most important risk factor in the development of cervical cancer is infection with a high-risk strain of human papillomavirus. Women who have many sexual partners (or who have sex with men or women who have had many partners) have a greater risk. The American Cancer Society provides the following list of risk factors for cervical cancer: human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, smoking, HIV infection, chlamydia infection, dietary factors, hormonal contraception, multiple pregnancies, exposure to the hormonal drug diethylstilbestrol (DES) and a family history of the disease.

Despite the development of an HPV vaccine, some researchers argue that routine neonatal male circumcision is an acceptable way to lower the risk of cervical cancer in their future female sexual partners. However, in men with low-risk sexual behaviour and monogamous female partners, circumcision makes no difference to the risk of developing the disease.

But having a risk factor, or even a number of them, does not mean that you will develop the disease. Several risk factors increase your chance of getting cervical cancer. Even though these risk factors increase the odds of developing the disease, many women with these risks do NOT develop this malignancy. When a woman develops the cancer or pre-cancerous changes, it sometimes may not be possible to say with certainty that a particular risk factor cause the disease.

In thinking about risk factors, it helps to focus on those that you can change or avoid (like smoking or human papilloma virus infection), rather than those that you cannot (such as your age and family history).

SYMPTOMS: Symptoms of advanced cervical cancer may include: loss of appetite, weight loss, fatigue, pelvic pain, back pain, leg pain, single swollen leg, heavy bleeding from the vagina, leaking of urine from the vagina, and bone fractures. Also, moderate pain during sexual intercourse and vaginal discharge are symptoms of the disease. HPV infection can be present for years without any symptoms.

TYPES: There are 2 main types of cervical cancers: squamous cellcarcinoma and adenocarcinoma. Although almost all cervical cancers are either squamous cellcarcinomas or adenocarcinomas, other types of cancer also can start in the cervix. These other types, such as melanoma, sarcoma, and lymphoma, occur more commonly in other parts of the body.

Certain kinds of human papilloma virus are called “high-risk” types because they are often the cause of cancer of the cervix. More than 250 kinds of HPV are acknowledged to exist (some sources say more than 200 subtypes). Together, human papilloma virus types 16 and 18 currently cause about 70 percent of cases. HPV types 6 and 11 cause about 90% of genital wart infections. Different kinds of HPVs cause warts on different areas of the body. Some kinds cause common warts on the hands and feet. Other types tend to promote warts on the lips or tongue. Still other types of human papilloma virus may cause warts on or around the female and male genital organs and in the anal area.

TREATMENT: Treatment consists of surgery (including local excision) in early stages and chemotherapy and radiotherapy in the more advanced stages of the disease. On June 15, 2006, the FDA approved the use of a combination of two chemotherapy drugs, hycamtin and cisplatin for females with late-stage (IVB) cervical cancer.

Because of treatment, the 5-year relative survival rate for the earliest stage of invasive cancer of the cervix is 92 percent, and the overall (all stages combined) 5-year survival rate is about 72 percent. These statistics may be improved when applied to women recently diagnosed, bearing in mind that these outcome may be partly based on the state of treatment 5 years ago when the women studied were first diagnosed. With treatment, 80 to 90% of women with stage I cancer and 50 to 65 percent of those with stage II cancer are alive 5 years after diagnosis.

As the cancer metastasizes to other parts of the body, prognosis drops dramatically because treatment of local lesions is generally more effective than whole body treatments such as chemotherapy. Thirty-five percent of patients with invasive cancer of the cervix have persistent or recurrent disease after treatment. In most cases however the body’s immune system fights off the virus, and the infection goes away without any treatment.

CONCLUSION: The beginning stages of the malignancy may be completely asymptomatic. Types 16 and 18 are generally believed to cause about 70% of cases. Along with type 31, they are the prime risk factors for cancer of the cervix.

The medically accepted paradigm, officially recognized by the American Cancer Society and other organizations, is that a patient must have been infected with HPV to develop this form of cancer, and is therefore viewed as a sexually transmitted disease, however most women infected with high risk human papilloma virus will not develop the disease. There has not been any definitive evidence to support the claim that male circumcision prevents the disease, although some researchers say there is compelling epidemiological proof that men who have been circumcised are less likely to be infected with HPV.

Even though the pap smear is an effective screening test, confirmation of the diagnosis of this disease or pre-cancer requires a biopsy of the cervix. According to the US National Cancer Institute’s 2005 Health Information National Trends survey, only 40 percent of American women surveyed had heard of human papillomavirus (HPV) infection and only 20% had heard of its link to cancer of the cervix.

In 2008 an estimated 3,870 women in the USA will die of cancer of the cervix, and around 11,000 new cases are expected to be diagnosed. The American Cancer Society recommends that screening should begin approximately three years after the onset of vaginal intercourse and/or no later than 21 years of age.

The HPV test is a newer technique for cervical cancer triage which detects the presence of human papillomavirus infection in the cervix. Since more than 99 percent of invasive cervical cancers worldwide contain HPV, some researchers recommend that HPV testing be done together with routine cervical screening.Human papillomavirus testing can decrease the incidence of grade 2 or 3 cervical intraepithelial neoplasia or cancer of the cervix detected by subsequent screening tests among women 32-38 years old according to a randomized controlled trial.

Figures suggest that cervical screening is saving 5,000 lives annually in the UK alone by preventing this disease. On a worldwide basis, cancer of the cervix is the fifth most deadly cancer in women.

INTRODUCTION: Mesothelioma is a type of cancer that is nearly always brought about by previous exposure to asbestos. The majority of people who develop it have inhaled asbestos particles while being employed on a job where asbestos is used, or they have been exposed to asbestos dust and fibre in some other way, such as by washing and cleaning the clothes of a family member who worked with or around asbestos.

It is an extremely serious disease with an average survival time of about 1 to 2 years after diagnosis. Unlike lung cancer, there is no relationship between mesothelioma and smoking. The condition occurs more frequently in men than in women and risk grows with age, however this disease can appear in either men or women at any age. It is also known to happen in those who are genetically pre-disposed to it.

SYMPTOMS: Mesothelioma may not appear until 20 to 50 years after exposure to asbestos. Diagnosing it is often difficult, because the symptoms are similar to those of a number of other conditions. The symptoms include shortness of breath due to pleural effusion (fluid between the lungs and the chest wall) or chest wall pain, and more general symptoms such as weight loss.

Signs of mesothelioma may also include abdominal pain, ascites, or an unusual buildup of fluid in the abdomenal mass in the abdomen, bowel function problems. Other signs of peritoneal mesothelioma may include bowel obstruction, blood clotting abnormalities, anemia, and high body temperature.

If the disease has spread beyond the mesothelium to other areas of the body, signs may include pain, having trouble swallowing, or swelling of the neck or face.

In severe cases of the disease, the following signs and symptoms may be present: blood clots in the veins, which may cause thrombophlebitis, disseminated intravascular coagulation, a disorder causing severe bleeding in many body organs, jaundice, or yellowing of the eyes and skin, low blood sugar level, pleural effusion, pulmonary emboli, or blood clots in the arteries of the lungs, severe ascites. These symptoms may be caused by mesothelioma or by other, less serious conditions.

TREATMENT: There are several types of treatment options available: Radiation, Surgery, and chemotherapy including recently approved medications. Despite treatment with chemotherapy, radiation therapy or sometimes surgery, the disease carries a poor prognosis. For patients with localized disease, and who can tolerate a radical surgery, radiation is often given post-operatively as a consolidative treatment.

Although the cancer is usually resistant to curative treatment with radiotherapy alone, palliative treatment regimens are sometimes used to relieve symptoms caused by tumor growth, such as obstruction of a major blood vessel. In February 2004, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved pemetrexed (brand name Alimta) for treating malignant pleural mesothelioma.

CONCLUSION: Mesothelioma is a form of cancer that is almost always caused by previous exposure to asbestos. Mesothelioma that affects the pleura can cause these signs and symptoms: chest wall pain, pleural effusion, or fluid surrounding the lungs, shortness of breath, fatigue or anemia, wheezing, hoarseness or cough, blood in the sputum (fluid) coughed up (hemoptysis).

It is described as localized if the condition is found only on the membrane surface where it started. Screening tests might diagnose mesothelioma earlier than conventional methods thus increasing the survival prospects for patients.

The processes leading to the development of peritoneal mesothelioma remain unresolved, although it has been proposed that asbestos fibres from the lung are transported to the abdomen and associated organs via the lymphatic system.

It has been said that in humans, transport of fibres to the pleura is essential to the pathogenesis of the disease.

Experimental evidence indicates that asbestos acts as a complete carcinogen with the development of mesothelioma happening in sequential stages of initiation and promotion.

Although reported incidence rates have risen in the past 2 decades, the disease is still a relatively rare occurence. Incidence of malignant mesothelioma presently ranges from about 7 to 40 per 1 million in industrialized Western nations, depending on the amount of asbestos exposure of the populations during the past several decades.

Between 1973 and 1984, there has been a threefold increase in the diagnosis of pleural mesothelioma in Caucasian males. From 1980 to the late 1990s, the death rate from mesothelioma in the USA increased from 2,000 per year to 3,000, with men four times more likely to acquire it than women. These rates may not be accurate, since it is possible that many cases are mis-diagnosed as adenocarcinoma of the lung, which is difficult to differentiate from mesothelioma.

Working with asbestos is the greatest risk factor for mesothelioma. However, the disease has been reported in some persons without any known exposure to asbestos. In addition to mesothelioma, exposure to asbestos raises the risk of lung cancer, asbestosis (a noncancerous, chronic lung ailment), and other malignancies, such as those of the larynx and kidney.

Smoking modern cigarettes does not appear to increase the risk of developing the disease. The Kent brand of cigarettes used asbestos in its filters for the first few years of production in the 1950s and some cases of mesothelioma have resulted.